The China Study - Complete References

Chapter 10

1. Frassetto LA, Todd KM, Morris C, Jr., et al. "Worldwide incidence of hip fracture in elderly women: relation to consumption of animal and vegetable foods." J. Gerontology 55 (2000):M585–M592.

2. Abelow BJ, Holford TR, and Insogna KL. "Cross-cultural association between dietary animalprotein and hip fracture: a hypothesis." Calcif. Tissue Int. 50 (1992): 14–18.

3. Wachsman A, and Bernstein DS. "Diet and osteoporosis." Lancet May 4, 1968 (1968): 958–959.

4. Barzel U.S.. "Acid loading and osteoporosis." J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 30 (1982): 613.

5. Sherman HC. "Calcium requirement for maintenance in man." J. Biol. Chem. 39 (1920):21–27.

6. Animal protein includes more of the sulphur-containing amino acids. When digested and metabolized, these amino acids produce the acid-forming sulphate ion, which must be excreted by the kidney. A recent report showed a remarkable 84% correlation between animal protein consumption and urinary acid excretion of sulphate.

7. Brosnan JT, and Brosnan ME. "Dietary protein, metabolic acidosis, and calcium balance." In:H. H. Draper (ed.), Advances in Nutritional Research, pp. 77–105. New York: Plenum Press,1982.

8. Frassetto LA, Todd KM, Morris RC, Jr., et al. "Estimation of net endogenous noncarbonicacid production in humans from diet potassium and protein contents." Am. J. Clin. Nutri. 68(1998): 576–583.

9. Margen S, Chu J-Y, Kaufmann NA, et al. "Studies in calcium metabolism. I. The calciuretic effect of dietary protein." Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 27 (1974): 584–589.

10. Hegsted M, Schuette SA, Zemel MB, et al. "Urinary calcium and calcium balance in young men as affected by level of protein and phosphorus intake." J. Nutr. 111 (1981): 553–562.

11. Kerstetter JE, and Allen LH. "Dietary protein increases urinary calcium." J. Nutr. 120 (1990):134–136.

12. Westman EC, Yancy WS, Edman JS, et al. "Carbohydrate Diet Program." Am. J. Med. 113(2002): 30–36.

13. Sellmeyer DE, Stone KL, Sebastian A, et al. "A high ratio of dietary animal to vegetable protein increases the rate of bone loss and the risk of fracture in postmenopausal women." Am.J. Clin. Nutr. 73 (2001): 118–122.

14. Hegsted DM. "Calcium and osteoporosis." J. Nutr. 116 (1986): 2316–2319.

15. Heaney RP. "Protein intake and bone health: the influence of belief systems on the conduct of nutritional science." Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 73 (2001): 5–6.

16. Cummings SR, and Black D. "Bone mass measurements and risk of fracture in Caucasianwomen: a review of findings for prospective studies." Am. J. Med. 98(Suppl 2A) (1995):2S–24S.

17. Marshall D, Johnell O, and Wedel H. "Meta-analysis of how well measures of bone mineral density predict occurrence of osteoporotic fractures." Brit. Med. Journ. 312 (1996): 1254–1259.

18. Lips P. "Epidemiology and predictors of fractures associated with osteoporosis." Am. J. Med.103(2A) (1997): 3S–11S.

19. Lane NE, and Nevitt MC. "Osteoarthritis, bone mass, and fractures: how are they related?"Arthritis Rheumatism 46 (2002): 1–4.

20. Lucas FL, Cauley JA, Stone RA, et al. "Bone mineral density and risk of breast cancer: differences by family history of breast cancer." Am. J. Epidemiol. 148 (1998): 22–29.

21. Cauley JA, Lucas FL, Kuller LH, et al. "Bone mineral density and risk of breast cancer in older women: the study of osteoporotic fractures." JAMA 276 (1996): 1404–1408.

22. Mincey BA. "Osteoporosis in women with breast cancer." Curr. Oncol. Rpts. 5 (2003): 53–57.

23. Riis BJ. "The role of bone loss." Am. J. Med. 98(Suppl 2A) (1995): 2S–29S.

24. Ho SC. "Body measurements, bone mass, and fractures: does the East differ from the West?" Clin. Orthopaed. Related Res. 323 (1996): 75–80.

25. Aspray TJ, Prentice A, Cole TJ, et al. "Low bone mineral content is common but osteoporotic fractures are rare in elderly rural Gambian women." J. Bone Min. Res. 11 (1996):1019–1025.

26. Tsai K-S. "Osteoporotic fracture rate, bone mineral density, and bone metabolism in Taiwan."J. Formosan Med. Assoc. 96 (1997): 802–805.

27. Wu AH, Pike MC, and Stram DO. "Meta-analysis: dietary fat intake, serum estrogen levels,and the risk of breast cancer." J. Nat. Cancer Inst. 91 (1999): 529–534.

28. UCLA Kidney Stone Treatment Center. "Kidney Stones—Index." March, 1997. Accessed at http://www.radsci.ucla.edu:8000/gu/stones/kidneystone.html

29. Stamatelou KK, Francis ME, Jones CA, et al. "Time trends in reported prevalence of kidney stones." Kidney Int. 63 (2003): 1817–1823.

30. This genetically rare type of kidney stone results from an inability of the kidney to reabsorb cysteine, an amino acid.

31. Ramello A, Vitale C, and Marangella M. "Epidemiology of nephrolothiasis." J. Nephrol.13(Suppl 3) (2000): S65–S70.

32. Robertson WG, Peacock M, and Hodgkinson A. "Dietary changes and the incidence of urinary calculi in the U.K. between 1958 and 1976." Chron. Dis. 32 (1979): 469–476.

33. Robertson WG, Peacock M, Heyburn PJ, et al. "Risk factors in calcium stone disease of the urinary tract." Brit. J. Urology 50 (1978): 449–454.

34. Robertson WG. "Epidemiological risk factors in calcium stone disease." Scand. J. Urol.Nephrol. Suppl. 53 (1980): 15–30.

35. Robertson WG, Peacock M, Heyburn PJ, et al. "Should recurrent calcium oxalate stone formers become vegetarians?" Brit. J. Urology 51 (1979): 427–431.

36. This information was shown in Dr. Robertson's seminar in Toronto.

37. Robertson WG. "Diet and calcium stones." Miner Electrolyte Metab. 13 (1987): 228–234.

38. Cao LC, Boeve ER, de Bruijn WC, et al. "A review of new concepts in renal stone research."Scanning Microscopy 7 (1993): 1049–1065.

39. Friedman DS, Congdon N, Kempen J, et al. "Vision problems in the U.S.: prevalence of adult vision impairment and age-related eye disease in America." Bethesda, MD: Prevent Blindness in America. National Eye Institute, 2002.

40. Foote CS. Photosensitized oxidation and singlet oxygen: consequences in biological systems. Vol.2 New York: Academic Press, 1976.

41. Seddon JM, Ajani UA, Sperduto RD, et al. "Dietary carotenoids, vitamins A, C, and E, and advanced age-related macular degeneration." JAMA 272 (1994): 1413–1420.

42. Eye Disease Case-Control Study Group. "Antioxidant status and neovascular age-related macular degeneration." Arch. Ophthalmol. 111 (1993): 104–109

43. The other four food groups were broccoli, carrot, sweet potato, and winter squash, showing disease reductions of 53%, 28%, 33% and 44%, respectively. Each reduction was only approaching or was marginally statistically significant.

44. Berman ER. Biochemistry of the eye. (Perspectives in vision research). New York, N.Y.: Plenum Publishing Corporation, 1991.

45. Lyle BJ, Mares-Perlman JA, Klein BEK, et al. "Antioxidant Intake and Risk of Incident Age-related Nuclear Cataracts in the Beaver Dam Eye Study." Am. J. Epidemiol. 149 (1999):801–809.

46. Bates CJ, Chen SJ, Macdonald A, et al. "Quantitation of vitamin E and a carotenoid pigment in cataracterous human lenses, and the effect of a dietary supplement." Int. J. Vitam. Nutr. Res.66 (1996): 316–321.

47. Varma SD, Beachy NA, and Richards RD. "Photoperoxidation of lens lipids: prevention by vitamin E." Photochem. Photobiol. 36 (1982): 623–626.

48. Talan J. "Alzheimer's diagnoses can be two years late." Ithaca Journal: 8A.

49. Petersen RC, Smith GE, Waring SC, et al. "Mild cognitive impairment." Arch. Neurol. 56(1999): 303–308.

50. Kivipelto M, Helkala E-L, Hanninen T, et al. "Midlife vascular risk factors and late-life mildcognitive impairment. A population based study." Neurology 56 (2001): 1683–1689.

51. Breteler MMB, Claus JJ, Grobbee DE, et al. "Cardiovascular disease and distribution of cognitive function in elderly people: the Rotterdam Study." Brit. Med. Journ. 308 (1994):1604–1608.

52. Haan MN, Shemanski L, Jagust WJ, et al. "The role of APOE e4 in modulating effects of other risk factors for cognitive decline in elderly persons." JAMA 282 (1999): 40–46.

53. Sparks DL, Martin TA, Gross DR, et al. "Link between heart disease, cholesterol, and Alzheimer's Disease: a review." Microscopy Res. Tech. 50 (2000): 287–290.

54. Slooter AJ, Tang MX, van Duijn CM, et al. "Apolipoprotein E e4 and risk of dementia with stroke. A population based investigation." JAMA 277 (1997): 818–821.

55. Messier C, and Gagnon M. "Glucose regulation and cognitive functions: relation to Alzheimer's disease and diabetes." Behav. Brain Res. 75 (1996): 1–11.

56. Ott A, Stolk RP, Hofman A, et al. "Association of diabetes mellitus and dementia: the Rotterdam Study." Diabetologia 39 (1996): 1392–1397.

57. Kannel WB, Wolf PA, Verter J, et al. "Epidemiologic assessment of the role of blood pressure in stroke." JAMA 214 (1970): 301–310.

58. Launer LJ, Masaki K, Petrovitch H, et al. "The association between midlife blood pressure levels and late-life cognitive function." JAMA 274 (1995): 1846–1851.

59. White, L., Petrovitch, H., Ross, G. W., Masaki, K. H., Abbot, R. D., Teng, E. L., Rodriquez, B. L., Blanchette, P. L., Havlik, R., Wergowske, G., Chiu, D., Foley, D. J., Murdaugh, C., and Curb, J D. "Prevalence of dementia in older Japanese-American men in Hawaii.  The Honolulu-Asia Aging Study." JAMA, 276: 955-960, 1996.

60. Hendrie HC, Ogunniyi A, Hall KS, et al. "Incidence of dementia and Alzheimer Disease in communities: Yoruba residing in Ibadan, Nigeria and African Americans residing in Indianapolis,Indiana." JAMA 285 (2001): 739–747.

61. Chandra V, Pandav R, Dodge HH, et al. "Incidence of Alzheimer's disease in a rural community in India: the Indo-U.S. Study." Neurology 57 (2001): 985–989.

62. Grant WB. "Dietary links to Alzheimer's Disease: 1999 Update." J. Alzheimer's Dis 1 (1999):197–201.

63. Grant WB. "Incidence of dementia and Alzheimer disease in Nigeria and the United States."JAMA 285 (2001): 2448.

64. This recently published study is more interesting than the others because vitamin E was measured in a way that is more discriminating by considering the fact that vitamin E is carried inthe blood fat. That is, a high level of blood vitamin E may, at times, be due to high levels of blood fat.

65. The effects of vitamin C and selenium in a study by Perkins (Am. J. Epidemiol. 150 (1999):37–44) were not statistically significant in a logistic regression model, according to the authors. I disagree with their conclusion because the inverse "dose-response" trend (high antioxidant blood levels, less memory loss) was impressive and clearly significant. The authors failed to address this finding in their analysis.

66. Ortega RM, Requejo AM, Andres P, et al. "Dietary intake and cognitive function in a group of elderly people." Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 66 (1997): 803–809.

67. Perrig WJ, Perrig P, and Stahelin HB. "The relation between antioxidants and memory performance in the old and very old." J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 45 (1997): 718–724.

68. Gale CR, Martyn CN, and Cooper C. "Cognitive impairment and mortality in a cohort ofelderly people." Brit. Med. Journ. 312 (1996): 608–611.

69. Goodwin JS, Goodwin JM, and Garry PJ. "Association between nutritional status and cognitive functioning in a healthy elderly population." JAMA 249 (1983): 2917–2921.

70. Jama JW, Launer LJ, Witteman JCM, et al. "Dietary antioxidants and cognitive function ina population-based sample of older persons: the Rotterdam Study." Am. J. Epidemiol. 144(1996): 275–280.

71. Martin A, Prior R, Shukitt-Hale B, et al. "Effect of fruits, vegetables or vitamin E-rich diet onvitamins E and C distribution in peripheral and brain tissues: implications for brain function."J. Gerontology 55A (2000): B144–B151.

72. Joseph JA, Shukitt-Hale B, Denisova NA, et al. "Reversals of age-related declines in neuronal signal transduction, cognitive, and motor behavioral deficits with blueberry, spinach, or strawberry dietary supplementation." J. Neurosci. 19 (1999): 8114–8121.

73. Gillman MW, Cupples LA, Gagnon D, et al. "Protective effect of fruits and vegetables on development of stroke in men." JAMA 273 (1995): 1113–1117.

74. Kalmijn S, Launer LJ, Ott A, et al. "Dietary fat intake and the risk of incident dementia in the Rotterdam Study." Ann. Neurol. 42 (1997): 776–782.

75. Alzheimer's trend was not statistically significant, perhaps due to the small number of disease cases.

76. Clarke R, Smith D, Jobst KA, et al. "Folate, vitamin B12, and serum total homocysteine levelsin confirmed Alzheimer disease." Arch. Neurol. 55 (1998): 1449–1455.

77. McCully KS. "Homocysteine theory of arteriosclerosis: development and current status." In:A. M. Gotto, Jr. and R. Paoletti (eds.), Athersclerosis reviews, Vol. 11, pp. 157–246. New York:Raven Press, 1983.

78. There is a potential snag in this logic, however. Homocysteine levels are regulated in part by B vitamins, most notably folic acid and vitamin B12, and people who are deficient in these vitamins may have higher homocysteine levels. People who do not consume animal-basedfoods are at risk for having low B12 levels, and thus high homocysteine levels. However, as described in chapter eleven, this has more to do with our separation from nature, and not adeficiency of plant-based diets.

Part III

1. http://www.southbeachdiet.com, accessed 4/26/04